The first conspiracy theory: The Masonic-Illumunist plot

Conservative Freemasons' Hall in London, c. 1809 Source

If not for the sweeping fury of the French Revolution which had exploded onto the European stage bringing sweeping changes to the social order, we probably never would have heard of the ‘curious historical footnote’ that was the Illuminati. For the ruling class and conservatives, the undercurrent of revolutionary fervour was vast and inexplicable, and they rushed to explain it as the machinations of unknown forces laying the blame onto secret societies and reading groups. Another important effect that the French revolution brought forward was the concept of ‘The Public’, as Thomas Konda, author of Conspiracies of Conspiracies a book on the history of conspiracism notes:

“people were subjects, not citizens, and no one thought them important enough to try to deceive”. [i]

So, following the French revolution two concepts were born: modern citizenry aka ‘The Public’, and the idea that a group might deceive them.

 Two men stoked these flames and transformed these vague rumours into what became the first conspiracy theory, John Robison and Augustin Barruel.

John Robison rocking some comfy looking pyjamas. Source

Robison was a Scottish chemist, a savant and a former Mason, who by the end of his life had grown disillusioned with Enlightenment values. In 1798 he wrote the incredibly titled book:

“Proofs of a Conspiracy against all the Religions and Governments of Europe, carried on in the Secret Meetings of Free-Masons, Illuminati and Reading Societies”.

For Robinson the Illuminati and Freemasons vied for world domination claiming that

”..under the specious pretext of enlightening the world by the torch of philosophy, and of dispelling the clouds of civil and religious superstition which keep the nations of Europe in darkness and slavery. I have observed these doctrines gradually diffusing and mixing with all the different systems of Free Masonry; till, at last, AN ASSOCIATION HAS BEEN FORMED for the express purpose of ROOTING OUT ALL THE RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS, AND OVERTURNING ALL THE EXISTING GOVERNMENTS OF EUROPE”. [ii]

(Emphasis is verbatim off the text- isn’t it amazing how an 1700s conspiratorial screed used ALL CAPS almost indistinguishable from a modern day believer.)

A year prior to Robison’s book Barruel a French cleric wrote ‘Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire du Jacobinisme’ which twisted and embellished rumours into fantastical variety. His book not only accused the Illuminati, the Freemasons and the revolutionary Jacobins but then Barruel claimed the conspiracy was even older than that, in fact hundreds of years old, dating it all the way back to the Knights Templar of the Crusades.[iii]

Augustin Barruel- this drawing may have been a caricature as the inscription reads 'lithograph de Villain- i.e. cartoon of a villain. Source

Both books caused a sensation among the aristocracy that lusted for an appropriate explanation for the violent social upheaval of the revolution and set the foundational elements of the first modern conspiracy theory: the Masonic-Illuminati plot. This theory found fertile ground in the newly created United States of America as many prominent leaders such as Benjamin Franklin, Paul Revere and George Washington were Freemasons which later led to violent anti-masonic movements throughout the 1800s. In 1806 Barruel’s conspiracy morphed again, Barruel received a letter from an Italian named ‘J.B. Simonini’ who claimed that Jews secretly controlled both the Illuminati and Freemasons. By all accounts Simonini was not an invention by Barruel and was a captain in an Italian army but very little is known about him, the letter prompted Barruel to search the connection of the Jews to this conspiracy and Barruel circulated the letter to prominent Jesuits though he never published it as he feared a violent reaction against Jews.[iv]

By 1820 on his deathbed Barruel still believed the Freemasons were the principal architects of the revolution and the Jews were marginal players, nonetheless his writing and the Simonini letter lay the groundwork of the conspiracy theory commonly described as the Judeo-Masonic plot, the belief that the Masons and Jews controlled world events. [v]

Like all good conspiracy theories Barruel and Robison’s claims ignored simple facts but had small nuggets of truth that made them compelling. For example, while the Freemasons were a progressive force that worked to abolish torture, witch trials, and improve schooling progressive force, many Freemasons also had sympathies with the aristocracy or belonged to it such as the French emperor Louis XVI. The claim by Barruel and Robison’s that the Freemasons fomented the revolution looks even more ridiculous when you realize that the Freemasons were guillotined in their hundreds,[vi] (and a century later during the Russian revolution there are similarities in accusations against Jews who fell victim to violence from both the Red and Whites).

For Jewish residents the French revolution’s cry of Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité meant the relaxation of restrictive laws which limited their occupations, movement and rendered them to pay special taxes. But Simonini’s claims that they controlled the Freemasons ignored the fact that some Masonic lodges barred Jewish members at the time. [vii] Nonetheless those that believed the Judeo-Masonic plot continued to see evidence of it at play; as Emperor Napoleon called for a meeting of Jewish elders in 1807 and labelled it the ‘Great Sanhedrin’ a reference to an Ancient Jewish court. Reactionaries viewed this as confirmation of the installation of a secret Jewish government and the coming of the Antichrist though most likely Napoleon did this to show he ruled over his Jewish subjects as much as Christian ones.[viii]

A medallion forged in honour of the 'Grand Sanhedrin' by Napoleon. Source

Throughout the 1800s accusations of the Judeo-Masonic plot continued to rear its ugly head and both books inspired writers to create scenes of these arcane and diabolical meetings turning them into a literary trope. It was only by at the start of the 20th century when the air was dripping with a heady mixture of revolution, anarchy and a primordial fascism did antisemites see an opportunity to mine the rich literary tradition and produce a Frankenstein monster that became one of the most virulent racist text in history: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. 

[i] Thomas Milan Konda. Conspiracies of Conspiracies: How Delusions Have Overrun America. (University Of Chicago Press, 2019) p.14

[ii] From: John Robison.Proofs of a Conspiracy against All the Religions and Governments of Europe, Carried on in the Secret Meetings of Free Masons, Illuminati, and Reading Societies. 1798 p.12

[iii] Augustin Barruel. Mémoires Pour Servir a L’Histoire Du Jacobinisme. 1797

[iv] Claus Oberhauser. Simonini’s letter: the 19th century text that influenced antisemitic conspiracy theories about the Illuminati. The Conversation, March 31, 2020.  https://theconversation.com/simoninis-letter-the-19th-century-text-that-influenced-antisemitic-conspiracy-theories-about-the-illuminati-134635 

[v] Norman Cohn. Warrant for genocide: The myth of the Jewish world-conspiracy and the Protocols of the elders of the Zion. (Harper and Rowe, 1969) pp. 30-31.

[vi] Trevor W. McKeown. The French Revolution and the Bavarian Illuminati. 2004. The Grand Lodge of  British Colombia and Yukon. https://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/robison-barruel.html#1 

[vii]United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Freemasonry. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Oct 27, 2005. From: https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/freemasonry 

[viii] Milo Lévy-Bruhl. The Jews and the French Revolution. K, 27 May 2021 From: https://k-larevue.com/en/jews-and-the-french-revolution/